The Mass according to St Germanus of Paris: third apology

One charge that is often brought against the Divine Liturgy of St Germanus is one of heavy byzantinisation, that is, the insertion of elements of the Byzantine rite into what ought to be a western Liturgy.

While it is true that, for various reasons, Byzantine elements were indeed incorporated into the restored Gallican Mass during its 20th-century restoration (and I will address these in a separate post), these are for the most part very unobtrusive and do not interrupt the flow of the Mass, and also are far fewer in number and far less extensive than some would suggest.  They are certanly not there to make a Western Liturgy seem palatable to Eastern Orthodox people, as is sometimes suggested.  One estimate that I encountered was that they account for approximately 70% of the Mass, in an attempt to "win people over".  Less than 5% would be a more accurate estimate, and a generous one at that.  Not wanting to attribute this inflated figure to any intention to cause a deception, I can only imagine that the person who made this observation might have been under the false impression that Western = Roman, and therefore incorrectly identified genuine western elements as eastern simply because he did not recognise them from the Roman rite.

Here I intend to deal with those elements that might appear to the modern observer to be extraneous importations but which are, in fact, authentic ancient Western practice.

The Trisagion sung shortly after the entry of the clergy

Anybody familiar with the Byzantine Liturgy will be aware that, immediately after the entrance of the clergy with its accompanying prayer and chants, the Trisagion - the hymn to the thrice-holy God - is sung.  This is a high point of the Byzantine Liturgy, as it is the first great hymn to God after the clergy have entered the altar.  It is also when they ascend to the presbyterium and, if the bishop is serving, where he ascends to his cathedra to preside over the eucharistic assembly.  For this reason, the consecration of a bishop takes place prior to this point so that the new bishop can ascend and take his place, presiding among his fellow bishops.

In the neo-Gallican Mass, the Trisagion is also sung in an identical position.  The entrance of the clergy is performed with its accompanying prayers and chants, after which the celebrant turns and blesses the faithful.  The Trisagion is sung immediately, three times.  To my knowledge, this is unique among western rites of the Mass and is therefore quite possibly a result of eastern influence.

However, that eastern influence - if that is indeed what it is - is not a modern one but rather had already become firmly established by at least the 6th century, and possibly earlier.  The letters of St Germanus tell us that the Agios (being the incipit), is sung in Greek, and then in Latin, and then in the vernacular.  Thus, this is a natural cross-fertilisation which is common in the history and development of all liturgical rites. (Click on the "ritual overlap" label on this post for other examples.)

As no complete manuscript survives, we do not know with absolute certainty that the hymn referenced here is indeed the Trisagion as we know it, but no other non-festal and non-seasonal hymn with such an incipit is known to have been commonly used in any rite apart from the Sanctus, which is universally a feature of the anaphora and so can be discounted as a possibility here.  Thus there is only a very slim margin of uncertainty about the nature of this hymn.

The deacon's stole worn over the dalmatic

The modern observer might be familiar with the apparent east vs. west distinction, in which Roman rite and most other western deacons wear their stole under the dalmatic, while Byzantine deacons wear theirs over the stikhar.  However, this is an oversimplification.

The reality is that, while the robe-type of vestment takes various forms and goes by different names in various rites, one thing that is very nearly universal is that the deacon's stole is worn over the top of everything else, as an outer garment.  This is seen in the Byzantine, Coptic, Armenian, Ethiophian, and other rites.  This is just as true of the Western rites as any others. As far as I am aware, the one exception was the use of Rome, where the deacon's stole is worn beneath the dalmatic.  The fact that the Roman rite became the most widespread of the Western rites should not mislead us into thinking that its peculiarities are mandatory in all Western rites.  See any celebration of the Ambrosian or Mozarabic Mass for comparison,  (YouTube shouldn't fail you.)

The stole worn on the outside is an authentic Gallican custom.

The deacon's litany with the response of Kyrie eleison

Ask any newbie to Eastern Orthodoxy what the most striking element of the Byzantine Liturgy is and they'll probably tell you that it's the plethora of (often repetitive) litanies.  Do not be fooled: while it was never as prevalent as it is in Byzantium, the litany led by the deacon is also standard Western practice.

As one example, the ninefold Kyrie eleison near the beginning of the Roman Mass is the remnant of just such a litany, the petitions for which survive in Sarum and possibly other manuscripts, and are blessed to be used in the Sarum Mass in the Russian Orthodox Church.

In the Gallican Mass, the corresponding Kyrie eleison was only ever sung a single time.  However, the sources tell us that there was a litany of general intercessions sung later in the Mass, which was led by the deacon and to which the people responded to each petition with "Kyrie eleison".  While this text no longer survives, the Litany of St Martin has been substituted as following this model and being an ancient Orthodox litany with the content necessary to fulfil this purpose.

The seven-branch candelabra

The seven-branch lamp on or near the Holy Table is standard in Byzantine rite churches.  However, far from being a borrowing from the Byzantine rite, its use on many altars where the Mass of St Germanus is served is a remnant of a long-forgotten Western practice.  In fact, it is a simplification of the ceremonial of the Gallican Mass, in which anciently, the seven candles would have been carried in the Gospel procession and held near to the ambo during the reading of the Gospel, to be returned again later.  In modern usage, the candelabra is (are?) stationary.

The deacon's exhortations of the faithful to be attentive

At various points in the Mass of St Germanus, the deacon calls the faithful to attention "in silence".  While this might appear to be an importation from the Byzantine Liturgy, again this is an authentic Western custom.

Remember that a universal feature of liturgical rites is that part of the diaconal role is to give practical instructions for the ordering of the worship of God by his people.  It is the deacon who calls the faithful stand, to kneel, to be attentive, to depart in peace, to pray to the Lord, to bow their heads, to give the peace, to hear the holy Gospel, and who directs the priest to bless the holy Bread and the holy Cup.

Therefore, it is the deacon who, in the Gallican Mass, calls the faithful to silence.  In some instances this might be an auditory silence, (such as prior to the Gospel, so that everyone can hear), but this is secondary.  Its true meaning is to call us to silence of the heart, so that we might be free from worldly distractions and focus on entering fully into the liturgical mystery.  (This is particularly pertinent in the Gallican Mass, which is textually much more explicitly eschatological than most other Western forms and even some Eastern).

We are called to such silence at the start of the Mass, prior to the Trisagion, in preparation for the Gospel, prior to the confession of Faith, and finally immediately prior to the Anaphora.  This calling to silence is the equivalent of the Byzantine calling to attention but was anciently phrased in terms of silence in the Gallican Mass and remains so today.

(Incidentally, it is also why the importation into the neo-Gallican Mass of the hymn "Let all mortal flesh keep silent" is very apt in the absence of the original text for the sonus, as it is very much in keeping with the spirit of this rite.)

The next instalment will focus on a particular liturgical development that applies to all forms of the Liturgy served within Eastern Orthodoxy, but which is curiously only pointed out as a negative criticism when it is applied to the Mass of St Germanus.

On Liturgical Archaeology

There are many objections to the Orthodox Western Rite. Many are founded on ignorance and can simply be either disregarded or educated away according to mood or circumstance, (such as the lady who flat out refused to believe that anything but the Byzantine Rite was ever used in the Church and tried to convince me that the Liturgy of St John Chrysostom was commonly used in England prior to the Schism). Others do actually have some basis in reality and in genuine concern for the proper passing on and living of the Orthodox Faith and for the spiritual well-being of Orthodox people. These deserve more attention and ought to be taken on board to one degree or another. There are yet others which cannot be so easily categorised because their proponents see them as so self-evident that, in expressing them, they do not often go beyond a brief statement, expecting that this will be readily understood and agreed upon by all right-thinking people, (i.e. people like them). The truth is that this simply serves to further polarise already opposing viewpoints. Then listening stops as, due to human weakness, both sides become defensive and dig their heels in.

One example of this is the position that holds that the restoration of pre-schism western services for use in the Church is "liturgical archaeology". This sort of disparaging terminology may serve as a self-congratulatory mantra among those who already agree with each other but to those who remain to be convinced, it simply shows a lack of respect and a dismissive attitude. Reliance on such belittling expressions instead of actual reasoned and coherent thoughts also suggests a severe lack of confidence in a very weak argument. This may be an inaccurate assessment but it is precisely the picture painted by the way in which this is often presented.

So, let us examine the reasons why people perform this "liturgical archaeology".

Read more...

The Same, Only Different

I have today begun to read a book by Professor Robert Taft, generally recognised as one of the people who knows more about the Byzantine Rite than almost anybody else. (Skufiya tip to Joseph for introducing me to him). The book is The Great Entrance: A History of the Transfer of Gifts and other Pre-Anaphral Rites. I have so far made my way through very little of the book but have been truly fascinated by what I have found. What strikes me most is just how ancient much of what happens from Sunday to Sunday at my little parish actually is, and where it has its roots, but yet more interesting is just how much of what we do in Orthodox churches today has retained the meaning that is either original to it or was attached to it very early on, and has not simply become an empty action divorced from its purpose.

The most humbling revelation for me, though, was the realisation that, contrary to what I have simply assumed for the past few years - and told other people! - the Great Entrance is not the Byzantine equivalent to the Offertory procession in the western rites.

Read more...

From East to West: part five

In my recent post about Resurrection hymns, Joe observantly commented on the tone 2 Resurrection tropar, noting the similarities of its structure and sentiment to an antiphon from the Divine Office in the Roman Rite for the feast of the Circumcision of the Lord. It appears in the Benedictine Office as the second antiphon on the psalms at Vespers and Lauds of the feast. Here it is:

When Thou wast born ineffably of a Virgin, then were the Scriptures fulfilled: Thou camest down like rain into a fleece of wool, to bring salvation unto all mankind: we praise Thee, O our God.

Because of its structure, especially the way that it climaxes with an ejaculation of praise at the end, I speculated that it may also be found in some form in the Byzantine Rite, so went and looked, and found this:

O Christ, Thou camest down into a virgin womb like rain upon a fleece, and as drops falling on the earth. Ethiopians and Tharsians and the isles of the Arabs, rulers of Saba and Medes, of all the earth fell down before Thee, O Saviour. Glory to thy power, O Lord!

This is the third tropar from ode 4 of the Canon from Matins of Christmas, and seems to have the same origins as the Western antiphon above:

He shall come down like rain upon a fleece, and like rain-drops that fall upon the earth. In his days shall righteousness dawn forth an abundance of peace, until the moon be taken away. And He shall have dominion from sea to sea, and from the rivers even unto the ends of the inhabited earth. Before Him shall the Ethiopians fall down, and his enemies shall lick the dust. The kings of Tharsis and the islands shall bring gifts, kings of the Arabians and of Saba shall bring presents. And all the kings of the earth shall worship Him, all the nations shall serve Him.

- Psalm 71:6-11

Both make reference to the virgin birth, and liken Christ's coming to rain upon a fleece. The Byzantine tropar explicitly mentions the peoples who came to worship Christ while the Western one summarises it by referring to the Scriptures having been fulfilled but they both clearly refer to the same psalm.

In Christ in the Psalms, Fr Patrick Reardon tells us of the historic use of the psalm to speak of the line of earthly rulers of the chosen people; God's anointed kings. He then turns us to the Saviour:

As Christians, of course, we believe that the inner substance of all these prefigurings finds its fulfilment in Jesus the Lord, the goal of biblical history and the defining object of all biblical prophecy ... The liturgical use of this psalm during the festal days of Christmastide suggests still further dimensions of its fulfilment, particularly the anticipated universality of the Messiah's Kingdom ... such lines must put one in mind of those wise kings who came to bow down beforfe the Christ Child...

And later:

No matter how successful his reign, no other king in history fulfilled the hopes outlines in Psalm 71. The Kingdom here described is truly not a kingdom of this world.

Thank you, Joe, for your observation, which led to this.

From East to West: part four

Last year, I posted three examples of overlap between the rites of east and west. You may read them here, here, and here.

Well, I have found yet another. Due to this illuminating post by Joseph, I was moved to compare the candle-blessing ceremonies of east and west for the feast of the Encounter of the Lord on the 2nd of February, and was pleasantly surprised by what I discovered.

Both eastern and western rites have five prayers of blessing of the candles. Here is the second prayer from the Roman Rite:

O Lord, holy Father, almighty everlasting God, Who hast created all things out of nothing, and Who through the labour of bees at thy command hast caused this fluid to come to the perfection of wax, and Who, on this day, didst fulfil the request of the Just Symeon, we humbly beseech Thee, that Thou wouldest vouchsafe to bless and sanctify these candles prepared for the service of man, and for the health of their bodies and souls, whether by land or sea, through the invocation of thy holy Name, and through the intercession of St Mary, Ever-Virgin, whose festival is this day devoutly celebrated, and through the prayers of all thy Saints; and that from thy holy heaven, and from the seat of thy majesty, Thou wouldest hear the voice of this thy people, who desire in thy honour to bear them in their hands, and to praise and exalt Thee; and that Thou wouldest be propitious unto all who call upon Thee, whom Thou has redeemed with the precious blood of thy Son. Who with Thee and the Holy Spirit liveth in glory, God, for ever and ever. Amen.

It is a rather beautful prayer, I think. Now compare it to the first prayer of blessing from the Byzantine Rite:

O Holy Master, Father Almighty, O Pre-eternal God, Who, at thy command, madest all things out of nothingness, and Who, only by thinking it broughtest this creation to the perfect Light, and Who hast fulfilled the petition of the Righteous Symeon on this present day: we humbly pray that Thou be pleased to bless and sanctify these candles, which have been prepared beforehand at the request of the people, for the health of soul and body, whether they be on land or on the waters, at the invocaton of thy most holy Name, and by the prayers of the Blessed and Ever-Virgin Mary, whose feast we now reverently celebrate, and by the prayers of all thy Saints. And from thy holy heaven, hearken unto the voices of these, thy people, who reverently desire to carry them, and, singing hymns, to glorify Thee; and from the throne of thy majesty, be merciful unto all crying out unto Thee, whom Thou hast purchased with the precious blood of thy Son, with Whom Thou art blessed, together with thy Most-holy, Good, and Life-giving Spirit, now and ever, and unto the ages of ages. Amen.

This is quite obviously the same prayer. I find this to be quite interesting in and of itself, but there's more. Here, for example, is the third prayer of blessing from the Roman Rite:

Almighty everlasting God, Who as on this day wast pleased that thine Only-Begotten One should be presented in thy holy temple, and received in the arms of St Symeon, we humbly beseech thy mercy that Thou wouldest vouchsafe to bless, and sanctify, and kindle with the light of thy heavenly benediction these candles, which we thy servants desire to take up and carry in honour of thy Name, to the end that, by offering them to Thee our Lord God, and being inflamed by the holy fire of thy most sweet brightness, we may be found worthy to be presented in the holy temple of thy glory. Through the same thy Son, our Lord Jesus Christ. Who liveth and reigneth with Thee and the Holy Spirit, God, world without end. Amen.

Compare this to the second prayer of blessing of the Byzatine Rite:

O Almighty, Pre-eternal God, Who on this day didst lay thine Only-Begotten Son in the arms of the Holy Symeon in thy holy temple, we call upon thy deep compassion: do Thou bless and sanctify these candles which we, thy servants, receive and desire to carry for the majesty of thy Name, and be pleased to light them with the light of thy heavenly blessing, that we who are offering them unto Thee, our Lord God, meetly enflamed with thy sweetest love, through a holy fire, may be counted worthy also to stand in the Temple of thy glory. For Thou art our God, and unto Thee do we send up glory: to the Father, and to the Son, and to the Holy Sprit, now and ever, and unto the ages of ages. Amen.

This raises some interesing questions. How did these same prayers end up in both rites? On the one hand, it should seem fairly unremarkable. After all, eastern and western rites have many traits in common due to their common origins. Many of the readings at the western paschal vigil and the old eastern paschal vigil are the same, as a prime example.

However, something does not seem to quite fit. The two prayers above state an explicit desire to carry the candles. In the Roman Rite, this is a clear reference to what immediately follows the blessing of the candles, where the people carry them, lit, in procession. As Joseph points out, this symbolises or actualises our participation in the event and mystery which the feast calls us to celebrate: the presentation of Christ in the temple. However, no such procession exists in the Byzantine Rite, yet the prayers refer to the people carrying the candles. How do we explain this?

Is the presence of these prayers in both east and west indicative of their antiquity? Or is it more likely that they migrated into the Byzantine Rite due to a later cross-fertilisation of the rites? We have seen this happen in the other direction with the tone 2 Sunday Matins stikheron finding its way into the Sarum ceremonies for Easter Day, so it is possible, and it would certainly explain the references to a non-existent procession. While it is not implausible that the procession did once exist in the Byzantine east and fell into disuse at some point, this line of thought raises another question, which is that of the timing of this ceremony. In the Byzantine Rite, most liturgical actions of this sort are to be inserted near the end of the Divine Liturgy. They customarily take place after the Prayer Below the Ambo and before the threefold "Blessed be the Name of the Lord from this time forth and for evermore". This is true of the blessing of grapes at Transfiguration, herbs at Dormition, and of water at Theophany, among other things. This is even the place for the insertion of processions, such as the moleben procession on the patronal festival of a parish or monastery. Yet the rubrics stipulate that the blessing of candles is to take place, not at this point, but after the Sixth Hour and before the Divine Liturgy, which is precisely the position called for in the Roman Rite. Thus it is quite uncharacteristic of the Byzantine liturgical tradition.

My personal suspicion is that this ceremony is a later interpolation into the Byzantine Rite. It is only in the west that the feast came to be commonly known as Candlemass and the ceremonies surrounding the candles do not quite seem to fit when transferred into eastern practice. I am, of course, willing to be corrected by those who know more about the development of these things but here are my own thoughts, open to scrutiny and comment.

From East to West: part three

Not my own effort this time but here is a comparison done by Father Deacon Benjamin over at his blog.

From East to West: part two

In the Sarum Use of the Orthodox Roman Rite, before the Mass of Easter Day, the Holy Things are returned from the Sepulchre, where they have been since Maundy Thursday, to the High Altar. Once this is done, the rubrics require all the bells to be rung together in a clash, and two antiphons to be sung, of which the second is this:

Now let the Jews declare how the soldiers who guarded the sepulchre lost the King when the stone was placed, wherefore they kept not the Rock of righteousness; let them either produce Him buried, or adore Him rising, saying with us: Alleluia! Alelluia!

Christ is removed from the tomb and once again returned to the place of honour in the Church, and this calls those faithful of the Old Covenant to either acknowledge and affirm that it is fulfilled in the Risen Christ or to produce evidence to the contrary.

Compare this to the second resurrectional stikheron of Sunday Matins in tone two, from the Byzantine Rite:

Let the Jews say how the soldiers who kept watch lost the King. Why did the stone not keep the Rock of life? Either give up the buried corpse or worship the Risen One, saying with us: Glory to the magnitude of thy compassions, O our Saviour! Glory to Thee!

At some point in the development of our services, it is clear that there was some borrowing from the one for the use of the other. Our services are replete with this sort of ritual overlap and this shows that the same Faith is expressed in the different rites of the Church, and that their development was not independent of each other. I hope to post a number of examples of this sort of overlap as I encounter them or as they come to mind, firstly, because I find it quite exciting and, secondly, because I think that it is important for people to see that the Western Rite is not something foreign and alien to Orthodoxy but is very much a part of our heritage as Orthodox Christians. Many thanks to Hieromonk Aidan for bringing this to public attention.

From East to West: part one

O pure and immaculate and likewise blessed Virgin; who art the sinless Mother of thy Son, the mighty Lord of the universe; thou who art inviolate and altogether holy, the hope of the hopeless and sinful, we sing thy praises. We bless thee, as full of every grace, thou who didst bear the God-Man: we all bow low before thee; we invoke thee and implore thine aid. Rescue us, O holy and inviolate Virgin, from every necessity that presses upon us and from all the temptations of the devil. Be our intercessor and advocate at the hour of death and judgement; deliver us from the fire that is not extinguished and from the outer darkness; make us worthy of the glory of thy Son, O dearest and most clement Virgin Mother. Thou indeed art our only hope, most sure and sacred in God's sight, to whom be honour and glory, majesty and dominion, unto the ages of ages. Amen.

A Prayer of St Isaac the Syrian

Could this have been the inspiration for the Salve, Regina?

Hail! holy Queen, Mother of Mercy. Hail! our life, our sweetness, and our hope. To thee do we cry, poor banished children of Eve. To thee do we send up our sighs, mourning and weeping in this vale of tears. Turn then, most gracious advocate, thine eyes of mercy toward us and, after this our exile, show us the blessed Fruit of thy womb, Jesus. O clement, O loving, O sweet Virgin Mary.

Salve, Regina - Anonymous